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All About Japanese Particles: さえ (sae)

[Serie: All About Japanese Particles]

1. “Even.”

Note: This usage is similar to de mo (#5, no. 2), but is more emphatic.

その問題は先生でさえ答えられなかった。
Sono mondai wa sensei de sae kotaerarenakatta.
Even the teacher couldn’t answer that [test] question.

そんな簡単なことは、子供でさえ知っていますよ。
Sonna kantan na koto wa, kodomo de sae shitte imasu yo.
Even a child knows such a simple thing! / A mere child would know something as simple as that.

2. In the form sae … -tara or sae … -ba, implies that if something additional is (had been) done, a positive outcome will occur (would have accurred): “if only.”

もう5分さえあったら、飛行機に間に合ったのに…
Mō gofun sae attara, hikō-ki ni ma ni atta no ni…
If we had only five more minutes, we would have been on time for the flight.

健ちゃんは頭がいいんですから、勉強さえすればいい大学に入れますよ。
Ken-chan wa atama ga ii-n desu kara, benkyō sae sureba ii daigaku ni hairemasu yo.
Ken has a good head on his shoulders, so if he only studies, he’ll be able to get into a good university.

– Source: All about particles – A handbook of Japanese function words –

Introduction

All About Japanese Particles: より (yori)

[Serie: All About Japanese Particles]

Note: Yori is sometimes displaced by nonstandard yori mo and yori ka.

1. Indicates a comparison: “than.”

吉田さんは小出さんより背が高いです。
Yoshida-san wa Koide-san yori se ga takai desu.
Yoshida is taller than Koide.

ニューヨークより東京の方が、人口が多いです。
Nyūyōku yori Tōkyō no hō ga, jinkō ga ōi desu.
The population of Tokyo is greater than that of New York.

*2. In the form to iu yori: “rather.”

あの人は指導というより、独裁者です。
Ano hito wa shidō-sha to iu yori, dokusai-sha desu.
He is a dictator rather than a leader./ He is  more of a dictator than a leader.

A大学の学長は、学者というより政治家だ。
A daigaku no gakuchō wa, gakusha to iu yori seiji-ka da.
The president of A University is more of a politician than a scholar.

*3. Used with interrogative words, indicates that the thing previously mentioned is in the superlative.

この店のフランス料理は、どこよりおいしいと思います。
Kono mise no Furansu-ryōri ưa, doko yori oishii to omoimasu.
I think that the French food at this restaurant is better than anywhere else.

彼は私にプロポーズしたとき、「僕は誰よりも君を愛している」と言ったのよ。
Kare wa watashi ni puropōzu shita toki, “boku wa dare yori mo kimi o aishite iru” to itta no yo.
When he proposed to me, he said, “I love you more than anyone.”

お元気そうで何よりです。
Ogenki sō de nani yori desu.
I’m glad to see you looking so well. (Lit., Your looking well is more than anything.)

*4. Indicates the time or place at which an action begins: “from, at.”

Note: This usage is equivalent to kara (#15, I-1 [time] and I-2 [place]), although yori is more formal and is more commonly used in writing and elevated speech.

3時間より閣議が行われます。
Sanji yori kakugi ga okonawaremasu.
A cabinet meeting will begin at [be held from] three o’clock.

この国境よりむこうが中国です。
Kono kokkyō yori mukō ga Chūgoku desu.
From this [point of the] border on is China./ On the other side of this border is China.

*5. Indicates a place or position from which an action accurs: “from.”

電車がまいりますから、白線より後ろに下がってお待ちください。
Densha ga mairimasu kara, hakusen yori ushiro ni sagatte omachi kudasai.
A train is coming, so please step back from the white line and wait./ A train is arriving. Please wait behind the white line.

私の家は駅より手前にある。
Watashi no ie wa eki yori temae ni aru.
My house is on this side of the station. (Lit., My house is before where the station is.)

*6. Indicates a cause, reason, or motivation: “as a result of.”

先月の市場調査より次のような結果が明らかになった。
Sengetsu no shijō chōsa yori tsugi no yō na kekka ga akiraka ni natta.
As a result of last month’s market research, the following results have come to light.

河川の温泉より伝染病が発生した。
Kasen no osen yori densen-byō ga hassei shita.
Infectious diseases have broken out as a result of [due to] polluted rivers.

*7. In the form yori hoka nai, indicates a limiting of choices to one only: “there is nothing else but.”

ここまでやったんですから、終わりまでやるよりほかないでしょう。
Koko made yatta-n desu kara, owari made yaru yori hoka nai deshō.
Since we’ve done this much, there is nothing else to do but finish it. / Since we’ve come this far, we’ll just have to finish it.

停電だから、電気がつくまで待っているよりほかない。
Teiden da kara, denki ga tsuku made matte iru yori hoka nai.
Because it’s power failure, there is nothing else to do but wait till the electricity comes on.

– Source: All about particles – A handbook of Japanese function words –

Introduction

All About Japanese Particles: として (toshite)

[Serie: All About Japanese Particles]

1. Indicates status or position: “in the capacity of, as.”

Note: Contrast with o (#18, no. 6)

ショパンは、ポーランドの作曲家として有名です。
Shoppan wa, Pōrando no sakkyoku-ka toshite yūmei desu.
Chopin is famous as a Polish composer.

こちらが、交換学生として日本へ来たホワイトさんです。
Kochira ga, kōkan-gakusei toshite Nihon e kita Howaito-san desu.
This is Ms.White, who has come to Japan as an exchange student.

*2. Used with “one” and counters incorporating “one”: “without exception.”

あの人たちのする仕事は、１つとしていいものがないんです。
Ano hitotachi no suru shigoto wa, hitotsu toshite ii mono ga nai-n desu.
You can’t say one good thing about the work they do. (lit., [Of] the work those people do, there is not one good thing.)

課長はマージャンに、1度として勝ったことがありません。
Kachō wa mājan ni, ichido toshite katta koto ga arimasen.
The section chief has never once won at Majong.

– Source: All about particles – A handbook of Japanese function words –

Introduction

All About Japanese Particles: どころ (dokoro)

[Serie: All About Japanese Particles]

1. Emphasizes a negative action or state as against the impossobility of a contrasting positive action or state: “It is out of the question, unthinkable, far from.”

この頃は仕事が忙しくて、旅行に行くどころではない。
Konogoro wa shigoto ga isogashikute, ryokō ni iku dokoro de wa nai.
I’ve been so busy lately, taking a trip is unthinkable.

あの人は秀才どころの話じゃなくて、まるで天才ですね。
Ano hito wa shūsai dokoro no hanashi ja nakute, maru de tensai desu ne.
It is not a matter of his being brilliant; he is an absolute genius.

2. In the form dokoro ka, negates the first of two parallel nouns: “far from; not merely.”

普通は1時間ぐらいかかるが、昨日は道が混んでいて、1時間どころが3時間もかかった。
Futsū wa ichi-jikan gurai kakaru ga, kinō wa michi ga konde ite, ichi-jikan dokoro ka san-jikan mo kakatta.
Ordinarily it takes an hour, but yesterday the roads were so crowded that, far from one hour, it took three.

あの人は英語どころか、フランス語もよくできますよ。
Ano hito wa Eigo dokoro ka, Furansu-go mo yoku dekimasu yo.
He is good not merely at English, but at French as well.

– Source: All about particles – A handbook of Japanese function words –

Introduction

All About Japanese Particles: ては / では (-tewa, -dewa)

[Serie: All About Japanese Particles]

Note: Here we are concerned with wa in combination with the -te (-de) form of verbs. See also wa (#1, particularly no. 5) and to wa (#7).

1. Indicates the repetition of two contrasting, alternating actions.

デビッドさんは、漢字を書いては消し、書いては消ししています。
Debiddo-san wa, kanji o kaite wa keshi, kaite wa keshi shite imasu.
David wirtes the kanji and erases them, and writes and erases them [again].

海岸には波が、寄せては返し、返しては寄せています。
Kaigan ni wa nami ga, tosete wa kaeshi, kaeshite wa yosete imasu.
At the shore, the waves advance and recede, recede and advance.

2. In the form ni shite wa (or to shite wa): “for.”

日曜日にしては、デパートがすいていますね。
Nichiyōbi ni shite wa, depāto ga suite imasu ne.
For the Sunday, the department stores are not vert crowded.

あの人は日本人にしては、英語がうまいですね。
Ano hito wa Nihon-jin ni shite wa, Eigo ga umai desu ne.
For a Japanese, her English is pretty good.

3. A conditional pattern, always with the result clause in the negative or with a negative implication.

a) Indicates an undersirable possibility leading to a negative result.

「腹が減っては戦ができぬ」と昔の人は言いました。
“Hara ga hette wa ikusa ga dekinu” to mukashi no hito wa iimashita.
“You can’t fight on an empty stomach,” people of old said.

b) In the form –te wa komaru: “there will be problems if, you shouldn’t.”

ここに車は止めては困ります。
Koko ni kuruma o tomete wa komarimasu.
You shouldn’t park the car here. (Lit., Parking the car here will be inconvenient [troublesome, a bother]).

c) In the form -te wa ikenai or -te wa naranai: “you shouldn’t, you mustn’t.”

公園で花を取ってはいけません。
Kōen de hana o totte wa ikemasen.
You should not pick flowers in the park.

ここでタバコを吸ってはならない。
Koko de tabako o sutte wa naranai.
You must not smoke here.

d) In the form –te wa irarenai: “be unable to.”

この問題については、私は黙ってはいられません。
Kono mondai ni tsuite wa, watashi wa damatte wa iraremasen.
I cannot remain silent about this problem.

– Source: All about particles – A handbook of Japanese function words –

Introduction

All About Japanese Particles: なり (nari)

[Serie: All About Japanese Particles]

1. Indicates a choice: “or, whether or not.”

Note: This usage is similar to the more common ka (#11, II-1), but nari lends slightly more emphasis.

その問題につて、松田先生なり、高山先生なりに聞いてみてください。
Sono mondai ni tsuite, Matsuda-sensei nari, Takayama-sensei nari ni kiite mite kudasai.
Please ask either Professor Matsuda or Professor Takayama about that problem.

明日行くなり、あさって行くなり、早く決めましょう。
Ashita iku nari, asatte iku nari, hayaku kimemashō.
Let’s hurry up and decide whether we are going tomorrow or the day after tomorrow. / Are we going tomorrow or the day after tomorrow? Let’s hurry up and decide.

2. Indicates a suggestion: “or something.”

まだ時間がありますから、喫茶店でお茶を飲むなりしましょうか。
Mada jikan ga arimasu kara, kissaten de ocha o nomu nari shimashō ka.
Since there’s still time, shall we drink some tea at a coffee shop or something?

健康のためにテニスなり、ゴルフなり、何か運動をした方がいいですよ。
Kankō no tame ni tenisu nari, gorufu nari, nani ka undō o shita hō ga ii desu yo.
For the sake of health, you had better get some exercise, like playing tennis or golf.

*3. Indicates that a second action follows immediately upon the action preceding it: “as soon as.”

Note: This usage is similar to to (#6, III-1) and –tara (#35, no. 5).

信号が青になりなり、待っていた車が走り出した。
Shingō ga ao ni naru nari, matte ita kuruma ga hashiridashita.
As soon as the light turned green, the waiting card began moving.

山本さんが電車に飛び乗るなり、ドアが閉まった。
Yamamoto-san ga densha ni tobinoru nari, doa ga shimastta.
As soon as Yamamoto jumped into the train, the doors closed.

*4. The expression nan nari: “whatever, anything.”

ご不満なことがあったら、何なりとおっしゃってください。
Go-fuman na koto ga attara, nan nari to osshatte kudasai.
If there is anything unsatisfactory, please say so [lit., say whatever it is].

*5. The expression dai nari shō nari: “whether big or small.”

どこにでも、大なり小なり問題はあるでしょう。
Doko ni demo, dai nari shō nari mondai wa aru deshō.
There are problems everywhere – some big, some small. / Everyone has problems, whether they be big or small.

– Source: All about particles – A handbook of Japanese function words –

Introduction

All About Japanese Particles: だの (dano)

[Serie: All About Japanese Particles]

1. Indicates a non-exhaustive list of items or actions: “suck things as.”

Note: Dano, a colloquial usage, is similar to yara and to ka.

クリスマスには、友達から本だの、カレンダーだの、チョコレートだのをもらいました。
Kurisumasu ni wa, tomodachi kara hon dano, karendā dano, chokorēto dano o moraimashita.
At Christmas, I received from friends a book, a calendar, some chocolates, and other such things.

学生のときは、ショパンだのリストだののピアノ曲をよく弾きました。
Gakusei no toku wa, Shopan dano Risuto dano no piano kyoku o yoku hikimashita.
When I was a student, I played a lot of piano pieces by suck composers as Chopin and Liszt.

2. Used for a pair of opposite actions or states (either opposite words or the positive and negative form of the same word)

行くだの行かないだのと言わないで、どちらかに決めてください。
Iku dano ikanai dano to iwanai de, dochira ka ni kimete kudasai.
Stop saying that you will go, and then that you won’t go, make up your mind one way or the other.

オーストラリアは、今寒いだの、熱いだのという人がいて、どちらなのかわかりません。
Ōsutoraria wa, ima samui dano, atsui dano to iu hito ga ite, dochira na no ka wakarimasen.
Since some people say Australia is cold now, and some say it’s hot, I’m not sure which it is.

– Source: All about particles – A handbook of Japanese function words –

Introduction

All About Japanese Particles: やら (yara)

[Serie: All About Japanese Particles]

1. Joins nouns to indicate a non-exhaustive list of items: “such things as …; and, what with.”

Note: This usage is essentially the same as ya, to ka, and dano, although these three are used more often in the spoken language.

あの国の人たちは、戦争やら、インフレやらで大変でしょうね。
Ano kuni no hitotachi wa, sensō yara, infure yara de taihen deshō ne.
What with war, inflation, and the like, the people of that country must be having a hard time.

その大学には、イギリス人やらフランス人やら、色々な国の人がいますよ。
Sono daigaku ni wa, Igirisu-jin yara Furansu-jin yara, iroiro na kuni no hito ga imasu yo.
At that university there are people from various countries, such as England and France. (Lit., … such as Englishmen and Frenchmen.)

2. Used with words of opposite meaning, or with positive and negative forms of the same word. Ka can replace yara in this usage, but the latter is softer in tone: “whether, whether or not.”

久美ちゃんはこのお菓子が好きなのやら、嫌いなのやら何も言わないんです。
Kumi-chan wa kono okashi ga suki na no yara, kirai na no yara nani mo iwanai-n desu.
Kumi doesn’t say anything about whether she likes or dislikes this candy. / Kumi won’t say whether she likes the candy or not.

パーティーに行くのやら行かないのやら、はっきりして下さい。
Pātī ni iku no yara ikanai no yara, hakkiri shite kudasai.
Please make it clear [say, make up your mind, decide] whether or not you are going to the party.

3. Used with interrogative words, expresses uncertainty (in instances where wakaranai is not explicit, it is understood).

Note: This usage is similar to, but a little softer than, ka (#11, II-3).

あの犬はどこへ行ったのやら、分からないんですよ。
Ano inu wa doko e itta no yara, wakaranai-n desu yo.
I have no idea where that dog went.

研くんはどの大学に入れるやら、本当に心配です。
Ken-kun wa dono daigaku ni haireru yara, hontō ni shinpai desu.
I’m really worried about which university Ken will be able to get into.

4. Used at the end of a sentence, indicates a rhetorical question with negative implications: “I wonder.”

来年はどんな年になるやら。。。
Rainen wa donna toshi ni naru yara…
I wonder what kind of year next year will be. / I wonder how next year will turn out.

日本の将来はどうなるやら。。。
Nippon no shōrai wa dō naru yara…
I wonder what Japan’s future will be like. / I wonder about the future of Japan.

– Source: All about particles – A handbook of Japanese function words –

Introduction

All About Japanese Particles: とも (tomo)

[Serie: All About Japanese Particles]

1. Used after numbers and counters: “both, all (three, etc.).”

ここにいる人たちは、3人とも大学で言語学を勉強しました。
Koko ni iru hitotachi wa, sannin tomo daigaku de gengō-gaku o benkyō shimashita.
All three of the people here studied linguistics in college. (Lit., As for the people who are here, all three …)

このセーターは、2枚ともMサイズですか。
Kono sētā wa, nimai tomo M-saizu desu ka.
Are both of these sweaters mediums?

2. After the -ku form of adjectives, indicates an approximate maximum or minimum: “at the least, most, latest, etc.”

この家なら、少なくとも1億円はするでしょう。
Kono ie nara, sukunaku tomo ichioku-en wa suru deshō.
This house would cost at least 100 million yen.

この事故で死んだ人は、多くとも100人ぐらいだろう。
Kono jiko de shinda hito wa, ōku tomo hyakunin gurai darō.
The [number of] fatalities in this accident was 100 people at most.

3. Indicates inclusion: “including.”

サービス料とも合計1万5000円です。
Sābisu-ryō tomo gōkei ichiman-gosen-en desu.
The total is ¥115,000 including the service charge.

運賃ともで、5万円になりますが。
Unchin tomo de, goman-en ni narimasu ga.
It comes to 150,000, including freight.

4. Used after the –ō form of a verb, adds emphasis to a supposition: “even if, no matter.”

あの人ならどんなことがあろうとも、最後まで頑張るだろう。
Ano hito nara donna koto ga arō tomo, saigo made ganbaru darō.
No matter what happens, he (if anyone) will stick it out to the bitter end.

明日は雪が降ろうとも、行くつもりだ。
Ashita wa yuki ga furō tomo, iku tsumori da.
Even if it should snow tomorrow, I intend to go.

*5.In the form tomo arō (noun) ga: “of all people (things).”

首相ともあろう人が、そんなことをして平気だとは信じられない。
Shushō tomo arō hito ga, sonna koto o shite heiki da to wa shinji-rarenai.
For the prime minister, of all people, to do something like that and be calm [about it] is unbelievable. / I can’t believe that someone in the position of prime minister could do some-thing like that without the slightest qualm.

大学の学長ともあろう人が、あんなにビジョンがないのでは困る。
Daigaku no gakuchō tomo arō hito ga, anna ni bijon ga nai no de wa komaru.
For the president of the university, of all people, to be so lacking in vision is a problem (troublesome). / We’re in trouble (in a fix, in bad shape) if the person who is supposed to be the presi-dent of the university is so lacking in vision.

6. Appearing after two words of opposite meaning and followed by ienai “can’t say (yes) or (no).”

多田さんは、あの映画はいいとも悪いとも言えないと言ってました。
Tada-san wa, ano eiga wa ii tomo warui tomo ienai to itte mashita.
Tada said that he couldn’t say whether the movie was good or bad. / Tada said that it was hard to say whether the movie was good or bad.

その値段は、高いとも安いとも言えませんね。
Sono nedan wa, takai tomo yasui tomo iemasen ne.
It’s hard to say whether the price is high or low.

7. At the end of a sentence, adds decisiveness to a positive state-ment: “indeed, certainly, of course.”

この本を借りていいですか。
いいとも。
Kono hon o karite ii desu ka.
li tomo.
May I borrow this book?
Certainly.

明日の試合に行きますか。
行くとも。
Ashita no shiai ni ikimasu ka.
lku tomo.
Are you going to the game tomorrow?
I certainly am.

– Source: All about particles – A handbook of Japanese function words –

Introduction

All About Japanese Particles: し (shi)

[Serie: All About Japanese Particles]

1. Indicates (and often emphasizes) the occurrence or existence of two or more actions or states: “and, as well as.”

ハワイは気候はいいし、花も美しいし、いいところですよ。
Hawai wa kikō wa ii shi, hana mo utsukushii shi, ii tokoro desu yo.
Hawaii is a nice place: the climate is good, and the flowers are beautiful.

新しい課長は頑固だし、仕事もできないですよ。
Atarashii kachō wa ganko da shi, shigoto mo dekinai desu yo.
The new section chief is pigheaded and can’t do the work either.

2. Indicates a reason or reasons for the following conclusion: “and …, so.”

竹村さんは、みんなから信頼されていないし、人気のないし、グループをまとめるのは無理でしょう。
Takemura-san wa, minna kara shinrai sarete inai shi, ninki no nai shi, gurūpu o matomeru no wa muri deshō.
Takemura is not trusted by anyone and is not popular, so it would be impossible for him to lead the group.

あのレストランは、サービスは無いし、料理はまずいし、行かない方がいいですよ。
Ano resutoran wa, sābisu wa warui shi, ryōri wa mazui shi, ikanai hō ga ii desu yo.
The service at that restaurant is bad and the food is poor, so you had better not go there.

– Source: All about particles – A handbook of Japanese function words –

Introduction