Japanese Particles that Indicate a Question or Uncertainty

1a-b. か (ka)

2. かな (kana)

3. かしら (kashira)

4. の (no)

5. って (tte)

1a. か (ka)

Indicates a question at the end of a sentence. Its tone has the politeness expected in everyday conversation with strangers or social superiors, in contrast to the casualness indicated by particles 2, 5.

山本：最近さいきんお仕事しごとはいかがいですか。

竹下：以前いぜんほど順調じゅんちょうではないですね。

Yamamoto: How is work going these days?

Takeshita: Not as smoothly as before.

ii)

京子：昨日きのうの試合しあい、どっちが勝かったんですか。

直美：もちろんAチームですよ。

Kyoko: Who won yesterday’s game?

Naomi: The A team, of course.

1b. か (ka)

Indicating a question, doubt, or uncertainty in mid-sentence.

今日きょうは風邪かぜを引ひいたのか、朝あさからのどが痛いたい。

Maybe I’ve caught a cold—I’ve had a sore throat today since morning.

ii)

明日あしたの会合かいごうに何人なんにん来くるのか、わからない。

I don’t know how many people are coming to tomorrow’s gathering.

2. かな (kana)

Typically used by men, indicates a tentative question or uncertainty at the end of a sentence. The feminine equivalent is かしら (3), both in function and in casualness of tone. English equivalent: “I wonder.”

課長かちょう：午後ごごからの緊急会議きんきゅうかいぎのこと、みんな知しってるかな？

係長かかりちょう：大丈夫だいじょうぶですよ、メールしてありますから。。。

Section chief: I wonder if everyone knows about the emergency meeting starting this afternoon.

Subsection chief: Don’t worry about it. An email has been sent out.

ii)

夫おっと：明日あしたゴルフに行いくんだけど、高田君たかだくんも行いかないかな？

妻つま：お電話でんわしてみたら？

Husband: I’m going golfing tomorrow. I wonder if Takada won’t go too.

Wife: Why not call and find out?

3. かしら (kashira)

Typically used by women, indicating a tentative question or uncertainty at the end of a sentence. The masculine equivalent is かな (2), both in function and in casualness of tone.

妻つま：どうしたのかしら？お財布さいふに入いれておいたのに、鍵かぎがないの。

夫おっと：大丈夫、テーブルの上うえにあるよ。

Wife: I wonder what happened? I put it in my purse, but the key is gone.

Husband: Don’t worry. It’s there on the table.

ii)

智美：あの新しいレストラン、おいしいかしら？

美江：おいしいわよ。昨日きのう百合ゆりと行いってみたの。

Satomi: I wonder how good that new restaurant is?

Mie: It’s pretty good. Yesterday I went with Yuri to try it out.

4. の (no)

Spoken with rising intonation, indicates a question at the end of the sentence. Equivalent in function to か (1a) but provides a softer, more casual tone.

母：もうご飯はん食たべたの？

息子：まだ食たべ終おわってないよ。

Mother: Have you already eaten?

Son: I haven’t finished yet. / I’m still eating.

ii)

春美：どこへ行くの？

久美子：お茶ちゃ飲のみに行いくんだけど、春美も行かない？

Harumi: Where are you going?

Kumiko: I’m going out for a cup of tea. Why don’t you come along?

5. って (tte)

With a rising intonation, indicates a question at the end of a sentence, asking if what one has heard is true. Typical of the spoken language and most often heard between friends or family. Often found in the form of だって (datte), but can also follow a verb（食べるって taberu tte). Without the rising intonation, the question becomes a statement (as in Tomiko’s response in the second sentence below), meaning “I hear that….” English equivalent: “Is it true (as I have heard) that…?”

由香：フランス語ご、明日あした試験しけんだって？

登美子：そうだって、いやねえ。

Yuka: Is it true there’s a French test tomorrow?

Tomiko: That’s what I hear. Ugh!

ii)

高山：部長ぶちょう、もう帰かえっちゃったんだって？

近藤：そうなんですよ。

Takayarna: The department head’s already gone?

Kondo: That’s correct.

Japanese Particles that Indicate Direction

1.に/へ (ni/e)

2.から (kara)

3.から…まで (kara…made)

4.より (yori)

1.に/へ (ni/e)

Indicates the direction toward which something is moving. In this sense に and へ are interchangeable . English equivalent: “to.”

i) 歩あるいて駅えきに／へ行いきます。

I will walk to the station.

ii) 銀座ぎんざにに／へ行いくには、地下鉄ちかてつが便利べんりでしょう。

The subway is probably most convenient to go to Ginza.

iii) 柳田やなぎださんに／へメールを送おくった。

I sent an email to Yanagida-san.

iv) 明日あしたは何時なんじに空港くうこうにに／へ行けばいいんですか。

What time should I be at (go to) the airport tomorrow?

2.から (kara)

Indicates the point from which an action starts. より (4) has the same function but is used in more formal or official situations. English equivalent: “from.”

i) 今、会社かいしゃから帰かえったところです。

I just now returned from the office.

ii) 昨晩さくばん、何時なんじごろ友達ともだちから電話でんわがありましたか。

About what time was it last night that there was a call from my friend?

3.から…まで (kara…made)

Indicates the starting place and ending place of an action. English equivalent: “from … to.”

松本：駅えきからホテルまでは、何分なんぷんぐらいかかりますか？

駅員えきいん：5分ぐらいですよ。

Matsumoto: About how long (how many minutes) does it take from the station to the hotel?

Station attendant: About five minutes.

ii) ホノルルから横浜よこはままで、船ふねで帰かえります。

I came back from Honolulu to Yokohama by boat.

4.より (yori)

Indicates the starting point of an action; more formal or official-sounding than から (2). English equivalent: “from.”

i) さくらホテルは、駅えきの東口ひがしぐちより歩あるいて5分ふん。

On foot, the Sakura Hotel is five minutes from the east exit of the station.

ii) 来週らいしゅうは、関西かんさいより九州きゅうしゅうに移動いどうの予定よていです。

Next week, the schedule calls for me/us to move (travel) from Kansai to Kyushu.

Japanese Particles Showing Connections between Words

1. と (to)

2. も (mo)

3. も…も (mo…mo)

4. や

5. や…や…など (ya…ya…nado)

6. に (ni)

7. とか (toka)

8. やら (yara)

9. て (te)

10a-b. たり…たり (-tari…-tari)

11. ては (tewa)

1. と (to)

Indicates a connection between nouns that form a list of two or more items. The list is complete ; that is, there are no other items that could be added to it (which contrasts to some of the other particles given in this section, which present partial lists that could be added to if the speaker chose to do so). に (6) is similar to と in that it presents a complete list, but it has a more formal sound to it. English equivalent “and.”

i) 教室きょうしつには先生せんせいと生徒せいとがいます。

There are students and a teacher in the classroom.

ii) 大統領だいとうりょうと副大統領ふくだいとうりょうがその会議かいぎに出席しゅっせきした。

The President and the Vice President attended that meeting.

2. も (mo)

Indicates that the noun it follows is connected (or similar) in some way to something else already mentioned. The first item was not followed by も; the second item is. Compare this with も• • •も (3), where both of the items to be mentioned are given in the same sentence and each is followed by も. English equivalent: “also,” “too.”

i) 山田やまださんは、来月らいげつ米国べいこくへ行いきます。私も近ちかいうちに行いくつもりです。

Yamada-san is going to the United States next month. I also plan to go before long.

ii)

弘子：明日のコンサート、香も来るの？

美穂：香は来ないわ。

Hiroko: Is Kaori also coming to the concert tomorrow?

Miho: No, she won’t be coming.

3. も…も (mo…mo)

Like と (1), も…も indicates that a connection exists between nouns that form a complete list of two or more items, but unlike と, も…も places emphasis on each of the items . It is identical to も (2) except that here both items are followed by も, whereas in 2 only the second item is followed by it . English equivalent: “both.”

i) 私はみかんもりんごも好すきです。

I like both mikan oranges and apples.

ii) この手紙てがみを松本さんにも、谷さんにも、送おくるつもりだ。

I intend to send this letter both to Matsumoto-san and to Tani-san.

4. や (ya)

Indicates that a connection exists between two or more nouns that form a list of items. や is therefore similar to と (to) and も…も (mo mo), but it is different in that the list could be added to if the speaker wished to do so: that is, the list is only a partial list. English equivalent: ” … and … and … and such” or “things like … and ….”

i) 彼かれは昨晩さくばん、ビールや日本酒にほんしゅをかなり飲のんだらしい。

Last night he apparently drank a lot of beer, sake, and other stuff.

ii) 昨日きのう買かい物ものに行いって、セーターや靴くつを買かった。

Yesterday I went shopping and bought a sweater, shoes, and some other things.

5. や…や…など (ya…ya…nado)

Indicates connections between nouns forming a list that could be added to if the speaker chose to do so. It is identical to や (4), except for the inclusion of など (“et cetera,” “and so forth”), which emphasizes the fact that the list is partial. English equivalent: ” … and … et cetera.”

i) 宴会えんかいの料理りょうりは、天てんぷらや、すしや、さしみなどだった。

The food at the party was tempura, sushi, sashimi, etc.

ii) 昨夜さくやのコンサートの曲目きょくもくは、シューマンやショパンやシューベルトなどだった。

The music at the last night’s concert included Schumann, Chopin, and Schubert.

6. に (ni)

Like と (1), indicates a connection between two or more nouns to form a list that is complete in itself (unless, of course, the list ends with など [nado, “et cetera”; 5] as in the second example below), but this particle differs from と in that it has a formal resonance. English equivalent: “and.”

田中：この大学だいがくには、どんな有名ゆうめいな教授きょうじゅがいるんですか。

鈴木：そうですね。経済学部けいざいがくぶの藤原教授ふじわらきょうじゅに、法学部ほうがくぶの田原教授たはらきょうじゅに、理学部りがくぶの湯川教授ゆかわきょうじゅでしょうか。

Tanaka: What famous professors are there at this university?

Suzuki: Well, I suppose that would be Professor Fujiwara of the economics faculty, Professor Tahara of the law faculty, and Professor Yukawa of the science faculty.

ii)

客：今日きょうはどんな料理りょうりがおすすめですか。

ウエートレス：ますにヒラメなどの魚さかな料理りょうりはいかがですか？

Customer: What do you recommend today?

Waitress: How about fish, such as trout and flatfish?

7. とか (toka)

Indicates a connection between nouns, adjectives, and verbs to form a partial list of examples that could be added to if the speaker wished to do so. In that way, it is similar to や (4), but it is different in that it is more casual and in that や only connects nouns. とか is also similar to だの (dano) in casually connecting nouns, adjectives, and verbs in a partial list however, with the items given in the list often have a negative impact. とか is often followed by the verb する at the end of the clause or sentence, which is also the case with たり…たり… (10). Eng,lish equivalent: “and … and … and so on.”

i) 休やすみの日ひには、家いえに本ほんを読よむとか、テレビを見みるとかしています。

I spend my holidays at home reading books, watching TV, and stuff.

ii)

孝：学生時代がくせいじだいにどんな本ほんを読よみましたか？

光子：そうですね。夏目漱石なつめそうせきとか、芥川龍之介あくたがわりゅうのすけとかはよく読よみましたね。

Takashi: What kind of books did you read when you were a student?

Mitsuko: Let me see. I read a lot of Soseki Natsume and Ryunosuke Akutagawa and so on.

8. やら (yara)

Connects nouns, adjectives, and verbs in a partial list . It is similar to とか (7) in this respect but different in that the items it lists indicate a somewhat confused or disorganized state of affairs. English equivalent: “… and … and who knows what.”

由香：京都きょうと旅行りょこうどうだった。

珠美：面白おもしろかったわよ。でもお寺てらやら、神社じんじゃやら、たくさん見て疲つかれたわ。

Yuka: How was the trip to Kyoto?

Tamami: It was interesting. But I saw so many temples, shrines, and stuff that I got tired.

ii)

健二：昨日きのう飲のんだ？

義彦：ウイスキーやら、焼酎しょうちゅうやら、ビールやら飲のんで、今日きょうはひどい二日酔ふつかよいだよ。

Kenji: Did you drink yesterday?

Yoshihiko: What with drinking whiskey, shochu, beer, and who knows what, I’ve got a terrible hangover today.

9. て (te)

Connects two or more verbs or adjectives that are similar in grammatical function and that present a complete list of two or more items that cannot be added to. This contrasts with the particles 7–10, which play a role in presenting partial lists. The て form can also indicate a reason or cause. English equivalent: “and.”

i) 空そらが青あおくて、太陽たいようが輝かがやいている。

The sky is blue and the sun is shining.

ii) 明日あしたはデパートで買かい物ものをして、映画えいがをみようと思おもっています。

Tomorrow I’m thinking of shopping at a department store and going to see a movie.

10a. たり…たり (tari…tari…)

Indicates that two or more verbs or adjectives have the same grammatical function and are connected by the たり form to constitute one set. In this way, it is similar to the て (-te) form discussed in 9 in connecting verbs or adjectives, but it is different in that this form hints that there are other verbs or adjectives which could be added to the list if one wished to. たり…たり is often followed by the verb する (suru), and in this respect is similar to とか (7). The たり form is made by adding り to the plain past form of a verb or adjective. English equivalent: “and … etc.”

i) 日曜日にちようびはゴルフをしたり、テニスをしたりして過すごします。

I spend Sundays playing golf, tennis, and doing other stuff.

ii) 旅行中りょこうちゅうは、美術館びじゅつかんに行いったり、お土産みやげを買かったりしました。

On the trip I did things like go to museums and buy presents to take back home.

10b. たり…たり (tari…tari…)

Indicates that two verbs or adjectives are connected to show a repetition of opposite actions or effects. This is similar to ては (11) in connecting verbs, but in たり…たり the verbs are not as tightly bound in terms of time or cause and effect.

i) 今週こんしゅうは寒さむかったり、暑あつかったりします。

This week, it’s been hot and cold, hot and cold.

ii) そんなに窓まどを開あけたり閉しめたりしないでください。

Could you stop opening and closing the window like that?

11. ては (tewa)

Connects two verbs whose actions are repeated and follow closely on one another . This closeness differentiates ては from たり…たり (10b), which can also show repeated actions. ては is also often followed by the verb する (suru). English equivalent: “and.”

i) 最近仕事が忙しくて、休日は疲れて、食べては寝て、食べては寝て、するだけだ。

These days I am so busy, and I am tired on the holidays, so I just eat and sleep, eat and sleep.

ii) 赤あかちゃんは、ミルクを飲のんでは寝ね、寝ねては飲のんで、だんだん大きくなっていくんですよ。

The baby drinks its milk and goes to sleep, goes to sleep and drinks its milk, and little by little grows bigger.

Japanese Particles Indicating Place

1. で (de)

2. に (ni)

3. の (no)

4. へ／に (he/ni)

1. で (de)

Indicates the place where an action takes place . Compare this with に (2c), which has a similar function with a limited number of verbs. English equivalent: “at,” “in.”

i) 毎日まいにち、朝食ちょうしょくは家いえで食たべます。

I eat breakfast at home every day.

ii) 山田やまださんは、銀座ぎんざのデパートで働はたらいています。

Yamada-san works at a department store in Ginza.

iii) 第1回目だいいっかいめのオリンピックは、ギリシャで開ひらかれました。

The first Olympiad was held in Greece.

で (de) is also used when the place referred to is not a physical location (e.g., a conference room) so much as an occasion or situation (e.g, a conference).

i) 田村たむら議員ぎいんが、議会ぎかいで質問しつもんした。

Assembly-person Tamura asked a question in the Assembly/Parliament.

ii) 私は、あの会社の面接めんせつで、うまく答こたえられなかったので、入社にゅうしゃできないかもしれない。

At the employment interview for that company, I wasn’t able to answer the questions very well, so I may not be accepted (may not be able to join the company).

2a. に (ni)

Indicates where something is or exists , and is often combined with the verbs ある (aru; mostly in reference to inanimate objects) and いる (iru; mostly for animate objects). Compared with で (1), which also indicates the location of an action, に here indicates the location of an action that is relatively static rather than one that is dynamic. English equivalent: “in.”

i) 私の両親りょうしんの家いえは、東京とうきょうにあります。

My parents’ home is in Tokyo.

ii) ボールペンはその机つくえの上うえにありますよ。

The ball-point pen is right there on the desk.

iii) 戸田：部長ぶちょうは今いまどこにいますか？

川口：出張しゅっちょうで、今日は、九州きゅうしゅうにいるはずですよ。

Toda: Where is the department head right now?

Kawaguchi: On a business trip. Today he should be in Kyushu.

When the subject is an event or happening (such as a parade), the location is most often indicated by で (de), not に (ni), even when the verb is いる (iru) or ある (aru).

i) 毎年まいとし、隅田川すみだがわで花火大会はなびたいかいがあります。

Every year there is a fireworks display at the Sumida River.

ii) 今晩こんばん、銀座ぎんざでパレードがあるそうです。

This evening there is a parade in Ginza, they say.

2b. に (ni)

Indicates a goal when used with verbs showing an inward movement . へ (e) can replace に (ni) in this usage, but に is more common. English equivalent: “in,” “into.”

i) あの大学だいがくにどうしても、入はいりたいんです。

No matter what, I want to get into that university.

ii) 夢ゆめの中なかに武君たけしーくんが出でてきたんだった？

Is it true (as I heard) that Takeshi appeared in your dreams?

iii) 8階かいまで行いくのに、エスカレーターよりエレベーターに乗のったほうが早はやいです。

To get to the eighth floor, it is faster to take the elevator than the escalator.

2c. に (ni)

Indicates the location where an action takes place when combined with the following verbs : 座る (suwaru; to sit), 置く (oku; to put), 住む (sumu; to live, reside), 勤める (tsutomeru; to work), 積もる (tsumoru; to pile up). Compare this with で (1), which has the same function with most other verbs. English equivalent “in,” “on.”

i) そのソファーに座すわって、お待まちください。

Please take a seat on that sofa and wait.

ii) すみませんが、鞄かばんはそこにおいてください。

Excuse me, but could you put your bag/briefcase over there?

iii) 将来しょうらい、田舎いなかに住すみたい。

In the future I want to live out in the countryside.

iv) 滝川たきがわさんは、郵便局ゆうびんきょくに勤つとめています。

Takigawa-san works in a post office.

v) ずいぶん屋根やねに雪ゆきが積つもりましたね。

The snow has really piled up on the roof, hasn’t it.

3. の (no)

In indicating a location, の is often combined with words such as うえ (ue; top), した (shita; bottom), よこ (yoko; beside), なか (naka; inside), そば (soba; beside), and まえ (mae; front of) to give a more detailed description of the location.

i) あの山やまの上うえの展望台てんぼうだいに行いってみよう。

Let’s go up to the observation platform on that mountaintop.

ii) 学校がっこうの前まえの喫茶店きっさてんで待まっています。

I’ll be waiting at the coffee shop in front of the school.

iii) 駅えきの横よこの本屋ほんやで、この本ほんを買かいました。

I bought this book at the bookstore beside the station.

4. へ／に (he/ni)

Indicate the place toward which something is moving . へ and に are interchangeable when combined with such verbs as 行く (iku; to go), 来る (kuru; to come), 戻る (modoru; to come back), and 帰る (kaeru; to return). English equivalent: “in,” “at.”

i) 昼ひるはあの店てんへ／に行って食事しょくじをしよう。

For lunch, let’s go and eat at that restaurant.

ii) 最近さいきん香港ほんこんや韓国かんこくへ／に買かい物ものに行いく女性じょせいが多おおい。

Recently a lot of women go to Hong Kong and South Korea for shopping.

Japanese Particles Indicating Time

1. に (ni)

2. から (kara)

3. まで

4. までに

5. から…まで (kara … made)

6. より (yori)

7. ほど (hodo)

8. くらい, ぐらい (kurai, gurai)

9. ころ, ごろ (koro, goro)

10. ばかり (bakari)

1. に (ni)

Used after words indicating the specific point in time (e.g., “three o’clock”) at which—or a interval (e.g., “one week”) during which—an action takes place. English equivalent: “at.”

i) 明日あしたの会議会議は3時に始はじまります。

Tomorrow’s meeting will start at 3:00.

ii) 1週間しゅうかんに1回かいピアノのレッスンに行いきます。

I go to have a piano lesson once a week.

Some words that indicate time do not take に (ni). For example,

Days (日ひ): yesterday (昨日きのう), today (今日きょう), tomorrow (明日あした)

Weeks (週しゅう): last week (先週せんしゅう), this week (今週こんしゅう), next week (来週らいしゅう)

Months (月つき): last month (先月せんげつ), this month (今月こんげつ), next month (来月らいげつ)

i) 今週こんしゅうは寒さむい日ひが多おおい。

There have been a lot of cold days this week.

ii) 来月らいげつ海外旅行かいがいりょこうに行いく。

I’m going to make a trip abroad next month.

Some words indicating time can either take に (ni) or not take it. For example,

Seasons (季節きせつ): spring (春はる), summer (夏なつ), fall (秋あき), winter (冬ふゆ)

i) 冬ふゆは東京に行きますが、夏なつにハワイに行きます。

I’ll be in Tokyo in winter, but I will go to Hawaii in summer.

ii) 去年きょねんの秋あきは韓国かんこくにいました。

I was in Korea last fall.

2. から(kara)

Indicates the point in time from which an action com-mences. から is sometimes interchangeable with に, but even then it places more emphasis on the starting point (see third sample below, where から could be replaced by に). English equivalents: “from,” “at.”

i) 学校がっこうは8時じからです。

School starts at 8:30.

ii) 投票とうひょうができるのは、20歳さいからです。

You can vote from the age of twenty.

iii) 明日あしたの会議かいぎは3時から始まります。

Tomorrow’s meeting will start from 3:00

3. まで (made)

Indicates the time at which a continuous action comes to an end , or the moment at which something occurs (such as when one gets tired) that brings a continuous action to an end. English equivalents: “until.”

i) 会議会議は3時半じはんまで続つづきました。

The meeting continued until 3:30.

ii) 昨日昨日は遅おそくまで仕事しごとをした。

Yesterday I worked until late.

iii) 疲つかれるまで走はしろう。

Let’s run until we’re tired out.

4. までに (made ni)

Indicates the time by which something will or must be finished . までに is basically setting a time limit, whereas まで (3) is simply stating the fact that something continued from this point in time to that. The two are most easily distinguished by remem-bering their English equivalents. English equivalent: “by.”

i) 明日あした10時までに、空港くうこうに集あつまってください。

Meet up at the airport by 10:00 tomorrow.

ii) この書類書類のコピーを昼ひるまでに取らなければなりません。

I have to make a copy of this document by noon.

5. から … まで (kara … made)

A combination of から (2) and まで (3). Indicates the starting point and ending point of an interval of time during which an action takes place. English equivalent: “from … to.”

i) 仕事しごとは月曜日げつようびから金曜日きんようびまです。

Work/my job is from Monday to Friday.

ii) デパートは10時から8時まで開いています。

The department store is open from 10:00 to 8:00.

6. より (yori)

Like から (2), indicates the point in time from which an action commences, but より has a more formal or official sound. English equivalent: “from.”

i) 大統領だいとうりょうの記者会見きしゃかいけんは3時より行おこなわれる。

The President’s press conference will be held from 3:00.

ii) 入社式にゅうしゃしきは午前ごぜん10時より11時半じはんまでの予定よてい

The ceremony to welcome new employees is scheduled to be held from 10:00 until 11:30 A.M.

7. ほど (hodo)

Indicates an approximate amount of time , with the slight connotation that the figure given is the maximum. It has a formal ring to it. English equivalent: “approximately.”

i) 電車でんしゃの到着とうちゃくは、事故じこのため30分ほど遅おくれます。

Due to an accident, the train will be approximately 30 minutes late.

ii) 今会社かいしゃを出でますので、後あと15分ほどしたらそちらに伺うかがいます。

I am leaving the office now, so I will arrive there (where you are) in approximately 15 minutes.

8. くらい, ぐらい (kurai, gurai)

Indicates an approximate amount of time , with the slight connotation that the figure given is the minimum. This particle does not have the formal sound of ほど (7). くらい and ぐらい are interchangeable. English equivalent “about,” “around.”

i) 家いえから会社かいしゃまで、40分くらいかかります。

It takes about 40 minutes from home to the office.

ii) 仕事しごとが後5分くらいで終おわりますので、少すこしお待まちください。

The work will be finished in another five minutes or so, so please wait a bit longer.

9. ころ, ごろ (koro, goro)

Indicates approximation when referring to a point in time . The two particles are largely interchangeable. Compare this with に (1), which indicates an exact point in time, and くらい, ぐらい (8) which indicate an approximate amout of time. English equivalents: “around,” “about.”

i) 3時ごろ、そちらに伺います。

I will call on you around 3:00.

ii) 毎朝まいあさ6時ごろ起おきます。

I get up every morning around 6:00.

10. ばかり (bakari)

Follows a verb in the past tense and indicates that an action has just been concluded . English equivalent: “just.”

A：遅れました。お待たせして、すみません。

B：いいえ、私も今来たばかりです。

A：I am sorry to be late and to keep you waiting.

B：Don’t mention it. I have just arrived myself.

ii)

掃除そうじしたばかりなのに、もう散ちらかしたのね。

I just finished cleaning and here you are already making a mess.

Particle types in Japanese

It is possible to classify particles into case particles, focus particles, conjunctional particles, and sentence-final particles.

1. Case particles

Case particles usually follow nouns and express the function of the noun in the sentence or in the phrase. More specifically, they express the relationship between nouns, or between a noun and a verb or an adjective. Case particles include ga, o, ni, no, de, e, kara, made, to, ya, and ka.

父ちちが弟おとうとを叱しかりました。
Chichi ga otōto o shikarimashita.
My father scolded my little brother.

私の友達ともだちの妹いもうとが来ました。
Watashi no tomodachi no imōto ga kimashita.
My friend’s younger sister came (here).

2. Focus particles

Focus particles follow words and another particle in order to focus on the entity denoted by the word and express sentence-external information such as the speaker’s knowledge, understanding, mood, attitude, and perspective. Focus particles include wa, mo, bakari, sae, demo, dake, shika, shi, and koso.

カラオケにはよく行きます。居酒屋いざかやにもよく行きます。
Karaoke ni wa yoku ikimasu. Izakaya ni mo yoku ikimasu.
I go to karaoke very often. I also go to izakaya very often.

一万円しかありません。
Ichiman’en shika arimasen.
I have only 10,000 yen.

3. Conjunctional particles

Conjunctional particles follow phrases and clauses and conjoin verbs and adjectives or create adverbial phrases/clauses. Conjunctional particles include te, tari, tara, to, ka, ba, node, noni, kara, and ga.

昨日きのうは食たべて飲んで寝ねました。
Kinō wa tabete nonde nemashita.
I ate, drank, and slept yesterday.

明日の天気てんきはどうかわかりませんが、たぶん晴はれると思います。
Ashita no tenki wa dō ka wakarimasen ga, tabun hareru to omoimasu.
I’m not sure about tomorrow’s weather, but I think that it will probably be fine.

タバコは身体しんたいに悪わるいのでやめました。
Tabako wa karada ni warui node, yamemashita.
Cigarettes are not good for health, so I quit.

4. Sentence-final particles

Sentence-final particles are placed at the end of a sentence and specify the function of the sentence or show the speaker’s mood, attitude, or subtle implications. Sentence-final particles include ka, ne, yo, and na.

いいですか。
Ii desu ka. (question)
Is it okay?

あの人はきれいですね。
Ano hito wa kirei desu ne. (seeking agreement)
That person is pretty, isn’t she?

これは駄目だめですよ。
Kore wa dame desu yo. (emphasis)
This one is not good.

雨あめは降ふるかな。
Ame wa furu kana. (speculation)
I wonder whether it will rain.

MASAHIRO TANIMORI – ERIKO SATO

Newborn Baby Congratulations Messages and Wishes in Japanese

ご安産あんざんでおめでとうございます。
Goanzan de omedeto gozaimasu.
Congratulations on the birth of your child.

This is the standard formal expression for congratulating the mother of a newborn baby or any of the immediate family. Such congratu-lations are traditionally regarded as falling within the domain of conversation among women—the mother of the child and her female well-wishers. In the past it was customary to wait until the mother had completely recovered from the delivery (up to a month or so after the actual birth) to call on her and offer congratulations, but these days felicitous sentiments are commonly expressed less for-mally, usually over the telephone. A typical example of informal congratulations from a woman might go:

おめでとう。よくがんばったわね。ゆっくり体からだを休やすめて、早はやく赤ちゃんの顔かおを見せてちょうだいね。
Omedetou. Yoku gambatta wa ne. Yukkuri karada o yasumete, hayaku akachan no kao o misete choudai ne.
Congratulations! It must have been hard. Take good care of your-self now, and let us see the baby real soon!

When you see the new baby for the first time, you’ll be expected to note a specific resemblance to one parent or the other, or perhaps to remark on some praiseworthy facial feature. In this situation, the following expressions may come in handy.

口くちもとが　きりっとして、お利口りこうそう。
Kuchimoto ga kiritto shite, orikousou.
Looks like quite an intelligent baby, with that determined-look-ing mouth.

おかさまに似にて、やさしそうな顔立かおだちね。
Okasama ni nite, yasashisou na kaodachi ne.
She looks like her mother, with those gentle features.

おとうさまに似て、男おとこらしい顔だちですね。
Otousama ni nite, otokorashii kaodachi desu ne.
He looks like his father, with those masculine features.

目鼻めはな立だちがはっきりして、しっかりした赤ちゃんだこと。
Mehanadachi ga hakkiri shite, shikkari shita akachan da koto.
Such a fine-featured little face. That’s certainly a healthy-look-ing child.

お人形にんぎょうさんみたい。
Oningyo-san mitai.
She (He) looks like a little doll.

While there are certain descriptive terms, like marumaru to (“chubby”) and tama no you (“like a perfect little gem”), that are still apt to be applied to baby boys rather than baby girls, it is no longer generally considered appropriate, as it was in the past, to suggest that the birth of a male heir is a more auspicious event than that of a girl.

How to Avoid Saying “You” in Japanese

Anata (あなた) translates as “you,” but its use is generally avoided. One exception is when wives call their husbands anata; then it has the special meaning of “darling.”

When talking to someone, you can be safe and say his or her name, with the suffix –san(さん), every time you want to say “you.”

Otherwise, refer to teachers, doctors, speakers, and government officials as sensei, and higher ranking members in your company by their titles. For example, if you want to ask your division manager what he plans to do, say Buchou wa do nasaimasu ka? (部長はどうなさいますか？)

How do you address the wife of a friend or the married woman next door? You can use either her last name, or if you need to make the distinction between her and her husband, you can call her okusan(奥さん).

The Top 11 Mistakes Japanese Language Beginners Make

Do these things only if you want to be seen as a newbie!

1. Use –san when referring to oneself.
Never, never do this.

2. Write: konnichi wa with a hiragana わ wa
The word konnichi wa (hello) uses the hiragana ha. In this case it is a particle pronounced as wa and not the regular hiragana for wa. Be careful with the particle は (pronounced wa) and the hiragana わ wa.

3. Use English vowels sounds.
Get the five vowel sounds down pat. English has something like fifteen vowel sounds but
Japanese only has five. Trying to fit those sounds into Japanese just leads to bad pronunciation habits.

4. Use English consonant sounds.
While the sounds in Japanese are mostly easy to learn for the English speaker, work hard at nailing down tsu and the R’s: ra, ri, ru, re, ro.

5. Ignore long vowels and double consonants.
Pay attention to long (in duration) vowels. hoshi (star) is not the same thing as hoshii (to want) even if to the English ear it sounds the same at first. Make the “i” long in duration. And double consonants are important too: kite (please come) and kitte (postage stamp).

6. Use your best American accent.
In most cases, Japanese sentences and words are unaccented. Don’t say, “ariGAtou”

7. Impress your host mother by saying her baby is scary.
Be careful with easily confused words like kowai (scary) and kawaii (cute). Never tell a new mother that her baby looks kowai. [ushi (cow) / oishii (delicious); kudasai (please give) /kusai (stinky)]

8. Write “minna-san”
Use minna (everyone) or mina-san (also means “everyone”), but minna-san is not used.

9. Overuse pronouns.
Saying “anata” (you) too often can come across as abrupt. In most cases, you can drop the pronoun or subject once it has been introduced.

10. To be a real Japanese master say “sayounara” instead of the loan-word “bai bai.”
“Sayounara” isn’t used as often as you may think. Use it when you are going away for a long time and may not see that person again. If you expect to see someone soon, use “mata ne” or “bai bai.”

11. Omitting “私は” too excessively.
First person 私は is usually omitted in Japanese. In Japanese, it is natural to omit subject. However, it is only when it is obvious who the subject is.

Clay & Yumi Boutwell